Swearing Loyalty to Those That Incarcerated You
In 1943, the WRA created the Application for Leave Clearance form. Informally known as “the loyalty questionnaire,” it tested adult inmates’ feelings on the U.S. and Japan.
Both questions caused deep distress and provoked unrest. Nisei men worried that saying they’d serve in the military was equal to volunteering to fight. Older Issei, barred from U.S. citizenship because they were Japanese, feared that denying loyalty to Japan would leave them without a country.
About 12,000 people expressed their frustrations and anger by refusing to answer, qualifying their answers, or answering one or both questions with a “No.” For many, it was their first act of resistance and could have serious consequences. Those who answered “no” to both questions were deemed “disloyal” by the U.S. government and became known as “No-Nos.” The government converted one of the original camps into a facility called Tule Lake Segregation Center, and moved the “No-Nos” to it. Tule Lake had increased security and treated inmates especially harshly.
Are You Communist or Are You American?
PARALLEL STORY
The loyalty questionnaire soon reemerged to test more allegiances.
In 1947, President Truman’s Executive Order 9835 mandated that all federal civil service employees be screened for “loyalty” to eliminate communist influence. In thousands of cases, accusers claimed that civil servants were communists or disloyal to the U.S., pushing the accused to resign or be fired.
In a violation of constitutional rights, employees were often denied the right to know their accusers or the charges against them. As anti-communist fears escalated – spurred on by the U.S.’s rivalry with the communist Soviet Union, paranoia, and conspiracy theories – the government persecuted teachers, academics, labor union activists, and members of the entertainment industry with little evidence. Many lost their jobs or went to prison under laws later declared unconstitutional during this “Red Scare.”
Today, newly naturalized citizens take an oath of allegiance to the United States. California and Arizona are among the states that require state workers to sign a loyalty oath as a term of employment.