Not a Security Threat, but Treated as Such

In 1940, the State Department commissioned Curtis P. Munson to investigate the loyalty of Japanese Americans. Munson interviewed West Coast military intelligence officers and commanders, city officials, and members of the FBI. His 25-page report concluded, “There is no Japanese problem on the West Coast.” Instead, Munson detailed “a remarkable, even extraordinary degree of loyalty among this generally suspect ethnic group.” His analysis of each generation, summarized below, was ignored.

Issei (ee-say): First-generation immigrants who came to the United States before the Immigration Act of 1924. Middle-aged or older by the time World War II began, Issei were loyal to the U.S. because they had chosen to make their home here.

Nisei (nee-say): Born in America, Nisei were children or young adults during World War II. Speaking English as a first language, most Nisei were loyal because they were born and raised in the United States and were American citizens.

Kibei (kee-bay): U.S.-born Nisei who were sent to Japan as youths for their formal education. Munson wrote that Kibei raised in Japan at a young age were considered the most dangerous, but those who went to Japan at an older age often came back more loyal to the U.S. than ever.